Each example below has three parts: the original text, a literal gloss describing how every word works, and a natural translation. The glosses use a few shorthand labels so they stay short. Don't worry about memorising them: this is a reference you can come back to.
Person and number · 1sg / 2sg / 3sg: first / second / third person singular (I, you, he/she/it) · 1pl / 2pl / 3pl: first / second / third person plural (we, you-all, they)
Gender and case · m / f / n: masculine / feminine / neuter · sg / pl: singular / plural · m.sg: combined: masculine singular (and similarly f.pl, n.sg, etc.) · NOM / ACC / GEN / DAT / INS / LOC: grammatical cases (nominative/accusative/genitive/dative/instrumental/locative): which role the word plays in the sentence
Tense and aspect · PRES: present · PRET: preterite (a finished past event) · IMPF: imperfect (an ongoing or habitual past situation) · FUT: future · PERF: perfect (an action completed with present relevance) · PROG: progressive (action in progress, e.g. am eating) · COND: conditional (would…)
Mood · IND: indicative (regular statement) · SUBJ: subjunctive (uncertainty, wishes, doubts) · IMP: imperative (commands) · INF: infinitive (dictionary form: to go, to eat)
Other · REFL: reflexive (action on oneself: myself, yourself) · PERS: personal a (Spanish only: marks a human direct object) · HON: honorific (extra-polite form, common in Japanese/Korean) · TOP / SUB / OBJ: topic / subject / object markers (Japanese, Korean) · CL: classifier (Chinese, Japanese, Korean: a counter word for nouns) · NEG: negation
English follows a strict Subject + Verb + Object (SVO) order. Unlike many languages, you cannot move words around freely: the position of a word usually tells you its role in the sentence. Time and place expressions normally go at the end of the sentence, or sometimes at the very beginning, but rarely in the middle. Adverbs of manner (how) usually follow the object. Because English has almost no case endings, word order is the main way to know who is doing what to whom. Compare: The dog bites the man vs. The man bites the dog.
English has two articles. The indefinite article a / an (singular only) introduces something for the first time or any one of a kind. Use a before consonant sounds and an before vowel sounds: a book, an apple, a university (sounds like yu-), an hour (silent h). The definite article the refers to something specific or already known. Omit articles with most plurals and uncountable nouns when speaking in general: Dogs are friendly, I like music. Also omit before most proper names, languages, meals, and many places: I speak English, She is at home.
English pronouns change form by role, not by gender (except he/she/it). Subject (before verb): I, you, he, she, it, we, they. Object (after verb or preposition): me, you, him, her, it, us, them. Possessive adjective (before a noun): my, your, his, her, its, our, their. Possessive pronoun (stands alone): mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs. You is the same for singular and plural, formal and informal. It is used for things, animals, and weather. The subject pronoun is almost always required: you cannot drop it as in Spanish or Italian.
English verbs barely change. In the present simple, regular verbs add only -s in the third person singular (he/she/it); all other persons use the base form. to be is the most irregular: I am, you are, he/she/it is, we/you/they are. to have: I/you/we/they have, he/she/it has. to do: I/you/we/they do, he/she/it does. Spelling rules for the -s ending: verbs ending in -s, -sh, -ch, -x, -o add -es (goes, watches); verbs ending in consonant + y change to -ies (study → studies).
There are two present tenses. The present simple describes habits, routines, facts, and permanent states: Subject + base verb (+ -s for 3rd sing.). Common signals: every day, always, usually, never. The present continuous (or progressive) describes actions happening right now or temporary situations: Subject + am/is/are + verb-ing. Common signals: now, right now, at the moment, today. Some verbs (called stative) are rarely used in the continuous: know, like, want, need, believe, understand. Use the simple instead: I know him (not I am knowing him).
The past simple describes finished actions at a definite past time. Regular verbs add -ed (work → worked, play → played). Many common verbs are irregular and must be memorized (go → went, see → saw, eat → ate, have → had). The form is the same for all persons. Common signals: yesterday, last week, in 2020, ago. The present perfect (have/has + past participle) connects the past with the present: an action with a result now, or an experience without a specific time. Common signals: ever, never, already, yet, just, since, for.
English has no single future tense; it uses auxiliaries. will + base verb is used for predictions, instant decisions, promises, and general future facts: It will rain tomorrow. be going to + base verb is used for plans already decided and for predictions based on present evidence: I am going to study tonight. Both are often interchangeable in everyday speech, but will feels more spontaneous, while going to feels more planned. Negative: will not / won't, am/is/are not going to. The present continuous can also express scheduled future plans: I am meeting John on Friday.
English present-tense conjugation is famously minimal. For almost every regular verb, the form is identical to the dictionary base in all persons except the third-person singular (he / she / it / a name / a singular thing), where you add -s (or -es after -s, -sh, -ch, -x, -o, and -ies after consonant + y). The pronoun is obligatory: English does not drop it (Speaks French is not a sentence).
| Person | Pronoun | to work (regular) | to go (regular spelling) | to study (y→ies) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | I | work | go | study |
| 2sg | you | work | go | study |
| 3sg | he / she / it | works | goes | studies |
| 1pl | we | work | go | study |
| 2pl | you | work | go | study |
| 3pl | they | work | go | study |
**Contractions and the auxiliary do.** In statements you usually drop the auxiliary, but it returns in questions and negatives: Do you work? / She doesn't work. The verbs be, have, and do themselves are irregular: I am / you are / he is, I have / he has, I do / he does. Spoken English contracts them heavily: I'm, you're, he's, she's, it's, we're, they're; I've, you've, he's (= he has), they've; don't, doesn't.
Use it for habits, routines, general truths, scheduled events, and stative meanings (I live in Rome. Water boils at 100°C. The train leaves at six. I know her.). For something happening right now, switch to the progressive (next sections).
Pitfalls. Forgetting the 3rd-sg -s is the single most common error (She speak English: wrong; She speaks English). Adding -s to other persons is also wrong (I works: wrong). With stative verbs (know, want, need, like, believe, understand, own), don't use the progressive: say I want coffee, not I am wanting coffee.
The present progressive (also called present continuous) describes an action in progress right now, a temporary situation around now, or a definite future arrangement. The formula is always subject + am/is/are + verb-ing.
| Person | Pronoun | be | -ing form |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | I | am ('m) | working / eating / going |
| 2sg | you | are ('re) | working / eating / going |
| 3sg | he / she / it | is ('s) | working / eating / going |
| 1pl | we | are ('re) | working / eating / going |
| 2pl | you | are ('re) | working / eating / going |
| 3pl | they | are ('re) | working / eating / going |
Spelling of the -ing form. Drop silent final -e (write → writing, take → taking). Double a final single consonant after a single stressed vowel (run → running, sit → sitting, begin → beginning). Final -ie becomes -y (lie → lying, die → dying).
Common uses. - Right now: I'm reading. - Around this period (not necessarily this second): She's learning Korean this year. - Trend / change: The weather is getting warmer. - Annoying habit with always: He's always losing his keys! - Planned future: We're flying to Tokyo on Monday.
Negative and question. I'm not working. / Are you working? / Why is she crying?
Pitfalls. Don't drop be (I working now: wrong; I'm working now). Don't use the progressive with stative verbs: want, know, need, like, love, hate, prefer, believe, mean, seem, own, belong, hear, see (perceive). I am wanting a coffee is wrong: say I want a coffee. Note that some verbs are both stative and active with different meanings: I think you're right (opinion: simple) vs. I'm thinking about it (mental process: progressive).
Want expresses desire. Followed by another verb, the structure is want + to + base verb (an infinitive). Want itself takes the normal regular present-tense forms (want / wants), and the second verb stays in its base form forever: no -s, no -ing, no -ed.
| Person | Pronoun | want | + to + base |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | I | want | to go / to eat / to learn |
| 2sg | you | want | to go / to eat / to learn |
| 3sg | he / she / it | wants | to go / to eat / to learn |
| 1pl | we | want | to go / to eat / to learn |
| 2pl | you | want | to go / to eat / to learn |
| 3pl | they | want | to go / to eat / to learn |
You can also use want with a direct object (no second verb): I want a coffee. She wants a new car. And with an object + infinitive for what you want someone else to do: I want you to listen. She wants him to call her.
Negative and question. Use do/does: Do you want to come? / She doesn't want to talk about it. Past tense: wanted (regular).
Register. Want is direct and neutral: fine among friends and family. For requests in shops, restaurants, or with strangers, it can sound blunt; switch to would like (see next sections) or Could I have…?
Pitfalls. Never I'm wanting: want is stative (see progressive section). Don't drop to: I want learn English is wrong; the correct form is I want to learn English. Don't conjugate the second verb: He wants to eats is wrong: only want changes, not the infinitive.
Would like is the polite version of want. Use it with strangers, in shops, restaurants, hotels, formal emails, and any time you want to sound considerate rather than blunt. Structure: subject + would like + to + base verb (or + direct object). Would is a modal, so the form is the same for every person: no -s in the third singular.
| Person | Pronoun | would like | + to + base / + noun |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | I | would like ('d like) | to order / a table / some water |
| 2sg | you | would like ('d like) | to order / a table / some water |
| 3sg | he / she / it | would like ('d like) | to order / a table / some water |
| 1pl | we | would like ('d like) | to order / a table / some water |
| 2pl | you | would like ('d like) | to order / a table / some water |
| 3pl | they | would like ('d like) | to order / a table / some water |
Contraction. I would → I'd; same for you'd, he'd, she'd, we'd, they'd. In speech the 'd often blurs into the next word.
Questions and negatives. Would you like to join us? / Would you like some water? / I wouldn't like to live in a big city. The question Would you like…? is the standard polite offer: much friendlier than Do you want…?
**Compare with like.** I like coffee = general taste (I enjoy coffee). I'd like a coffee = right now, please give me one. The two are completely different: don't say I like a coffee when ordering.
Pitfalls. No -s on would (she would likes: wrong). Don't drop to before the verb (I'd like order a pizza: wrong; correct: I'd like to order a pizza). When followed by a noun, no to: I'd like a beer, not I'd like to a beer.
Be going to + base verb expresses a planned, intended, or evidence-based future. Use it for decisions already made before the moment of speaking (I'm going to call her tonight: I decided this morning) and for predictions you can see coming (Look at the sky: it's going to rain). Structure: subject + am/is/are + going to + base verb.
| Person | Pronoun | be | going to + base |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | I | am ('m) | going to leave / study / travel |
| 2sg | you | are ('re) | going to leave / study / travel |
| 3sg | he / she / it | is ('s) | going to leave / study / travel |
| 1pl | we | are ('re) | going to leave / study / travel |
| 2pl | you | are ('re) | going to leave / study / travel |
| 3pl | they | are ('re) | going to leave / study / travel |
**Compare with will.** Will is for spontaneous decisions (The phone's ringing: I'll get it!), promises, predictions without visible evidence, and offers. Be going to is for prior plans and evidence-based predictions. I'm going to study tonight (already decided) vs. I'll help you (deciding right now).
Informal speech. In casual speech, going to + verb often blurs into gonna (I'm gonna call you later). Write it as going to in anything but very casual dialogue. Gonna is never used before a noun: I'm going to the gym: never I'm gonna the gym.
Negative and question. I'm not going to argue with you. / Are you going to apply for the job? / What is she going to wear?
Pitfalls. Don't say I'm going to going: drop go: just I'm going to the party (movement) or I'm going to + verb (future). Don't omit be: I going to leave is wrong; correct: I'm going to leave.
Will is the simplest future marker: subject + will + base verb. As a modal, will never changes form: no -s in the third person, no to after it. Use it for: - Spontaneous decisions at the moment of speaking: The doorbell: I'll get it. - Predictions (especially without visible evidence): AI will change everything. - Promises and offers: I'll always love you. I'll help you carry that. - Future facts: The match will start at 9 p.m.
| Person | Pronoun | will | + base |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | I | will ('ll) | go / call / try |
| 2sg | you | will ('ll) | go / call / try |
| 3sg | he / she / it | will ('ll) | go / call / try |
| 1pl | we | will ('ll) | go / call / try |
| 2pl | you | will ('ll) | go / call / try |
| 3pl | they | will ('ll) | go / call / try |
Contractions. I'll, you'll, he'll, she'll, it'll, we'll, they'll; negative will not → won't (note the spelling: not willn't).
Question. Invert: Will you marry me? / When will the meeting end? In requests, Will you…? sounds direct (Will you close the door?); Would you…? is more polite (Would you close the door, please?).
**Compare with going to.** I'll call her later (decided now) vs. I'm going to call her later (already planned). Both are correct in many contexts; the choice signals when the decision was made.
Pitfalls. Don't put to after will (I will to go: wrong; I will go). Don't conjugate (She wills go: wrong; She will go). With if-clauses, use the present, not will, in the if-part: If it rains, I will stay home (NOT If it will rain).
Can is the modal for present ability, possibility, permission, and informal requests. Could is its past counterpart for past ability, and also a more polite / hypothetical version in the present. Structure: subject + can/could + base verb: no to, no -s in 3rd person.
| Person | Pronoun | can / could | + base |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | I | can / could | swim / drive / help |
| 2sg | you | can / could | swim / drive / help |
| 3sg | he / she / it | can / could | swim / drive / help |
| 1pl | we | can / could | swim / drive / help |
| 2pl | you | can / could | swim / drive / help |
| 3pl | they | can / could | swim / drive / help |
**Uses of can.** - Ability: I can speak three languages. - Possibility: It can get cold here in summer. - Permission: You can leave early today. - Informal request: Can you pass the salt?
**Uses of could.** - Past ability (general): When I was a child, I could run for hours. (For a specific past achievement, use was/were able to or managed to.) - Polite request: Could you help me with this? (more polite than can) - Possibility / suggestion: We could go to the cinema tonight. - Hypothetical: If I had more time, I could learn the guitar.
Negative. cannot / can't (written as one word) and could not / couldn't.
For other tenses, English uses be able to: I have been able to / I will be able to / I was able to. Can itself has no infinitive or -ing form.
Pitfalls. No to after can/could (I can to swim: wrong; I can swim). No -s in 3rd sg (She cans dance: wrong; She can dance). Don't confuse could (past or polite) with would (hypothetical desire): Could you = Are you able to?; Would you = Are you willing to?
The present perfect links a past action to now. Structure: subject + have/has + past participle. Use it when the time is unspecified (or the action continues / has present relevance), not when you mention a finished past time like yesterday or in 2020 (those need the past simple).
| Person | Pronoun | have/has | + past participle |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | I | have ('ve) | worked / gone / seen / eaten / been |
| 2sg | you | have ('ve) | worked / gone / seen / eaten / been |
| 3sg | he / she / it | has ('s) | worked / gone / seen / eaten / been |
| 1pl | we | have ('ve) | worked / gone / seen / eaten / been |
| 2pl | you | have ('ve) | worked / gone / seen / eaten / been |
| 3pl | they | have ('ve) | worked / gone / seen / eaten / been |
Past participles. For regular verbs, the past participle is the same as the past simple: just add -ed (work → worked → worked). Many common verbs are irregular and must be memorized: sample three-form list (base / past / past participle): go / went / gone; see / saw / seen; eat / ate / eaten; do / did / done; take / took / taken; write / wrote / written; be / was, were / been; have / had / had; make / made / made; come / came / come.
Common uses and signals. - Life experience: Have you ever been to Japan? - Recent past with present result: I've lost my keys (= and I still can't find them). - Unfinished period: I haven't seen him today. (today isn't over) - With for / since: I've lived here for five years / since 2021. - With just, already, yet: She's just arrived. We've already eaten. Have you finished yet?
Pitfalls. Have went is wrong: the past participle of go is gone (I have gone). He have is wrong: third singular is has (He has gone). Don't use the present perfect with finished past times: I have seen him yesterday is wrong; say I saw him yesterday (past simple) or I have seen him (no time) or I have seen him this week (unfinished period). Been vs. gone: She has been to Paris (and is back) vs. She has gone to Paris (still there).
To make a sentence negative, you almost always need an auxiliary verb plus not. With to be, just add not: I am not tired. With most other verbs in the present simple, use do not / does not + base verb: I do not (don't) know, She does not (doesn't) like fish. In the past simple, use did not (didn't) + base verb for all persons: We didn't go. With modal verbs (can, will, should), add not directly: cannot/can't, won't, shouldn't. Note: do not double-negate in standard English: say I don't know anything, not I don't know nothing.
Yes/no questions are formed by putting an auxiliary verb before the subject. With to be: Are you tired? With other verbs in the present, use do/does + subject + base verb: Do you speak English? Does she live here? In the past, use did + subject + base verb: Did they arrive? Wh- questions start with a question word (what, where, when, who, why, how, which) followed by the same auxiliary + subject + verb pattern: Where do you live? When the wh- word is the subject, keep normal order with no auxiliary: Who called?
Most nouns form the plural by adding -s: book → books, car → cars. Nouns ending in -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, -z add -es: bus → buses, box → boxes, watch → watches. Nouns ending in consonant + y change y to -ies: city → cities, baby → babies. Many nouns ending in -f / -fe change to -ves: leaf → leaves, knife → knives. Some common nouns are irregular: man → men, woman → women, child → children, foot → feet, tooth → teeth, mouse → mice, person → people. A few are unchanged: fish, sheep, deer. Uncountable nouns (water, information, advice) have no plural form.
English adjectives never change form: no agreement with gender or number: a tall boy, tall girls, tall trees. Adjectives normally come before the noun they describe: a red car, an interesting book. They can also come after the verb to be and similar linking verbs (seem, look, become, feel): The car is red. When you use several adjectives together, the typical order is: opinion + size + age + shape + colour + origin + material + purpose + noun: e.g. a beautiful small old round red Italian wooden table. In practice, two or three adjectives are usually enough.
Adverbs of frequency tell how often something happens: always (100%), usually, often, sometimes, rarely / seldom, never (0%). Their position is fixed: they go before the main verb but after the verb to be and after auxiliary verbs. I always drink tea. She is always late. They have never been to Japan. Longer time expressions like every day, once a week, twice a month, from time to time usually go at the end (or beginning) of the sentence: I go running every day. Do not put one-word frequency adverbs at the end of the sentence in standard English.
Three features shape much of English grammar. (1) Auxiliary verbs: do/does/did, have/has/had, be (am/is/are/was/were) are used to build questions, negatives, and compound tenses. They carry the tense and the not, so the main verb stays in its base form: Did you see?, She hasn't arrived. (2) No grammatical gender: nouns are neutral; only he/she/it mark a real-world distinction (people vs. things). Adjectives and articles don't change. (3) Modal verbs (can, could, may, might, must, should, will, would) are followed by the **base verb without *to***: I can swim, You should rest, She must go. They have no -s in the third person.