Italian Essential grammar

Abbreviations used in this guide

Each example below has three parts: the original text, a literal gloss describing how every word works, and a natural translation. The glosses use a few shorthand labels so they stay short. Don't worry about memorising them — this is a reference you can come back to.

Person and number · 1sg / 2sg / 3sg — first / second / third person singular (I, you, he/she/it) · 1pl / 2pl / 3pl — first / second / third person plural (we, you-all, they)

Gender and case · m / f / n — masculine / feminine / neuter · sg / pl — singular / plural · m.sg — combined: masculine singular (and similarly f.pl, n.sg, etc.) · NOM / ACC / GEN / DAT / INS / LOC — grammatical cases (nominative/accusative/genitive/dative/instrumental/locative) — which role the word plays in the sentence

Tense and aspect · PRES — present · PRET — preterite (a finished past event) · IMPF — imperfect (an ongoing or habitual past situation) · FUT — future · PERF — perfect (an action completed with present relevance) · PROG — progressive (action in progress, e.g. am eating) · COND — conditional (would…)

Mood · IND — indicative (regular statement) · SUBJ — subjunctive (uncertainty, wishes, doubts) · IMP — imperative (commands) · INF — infinitive (dictionary form: to go, to eat)

Other · REFL — reflexive (action on oneself: myself, yourself) · PERS — personal a (Spanish only — marks a human direct object) · HON — honorific (extra-polite form, common in Japanese/Korean) · TOP / SUB / OBJ — topic / subject / object markers (Japanese, Korean) · CL — classifier (Chinese, Japanese, Korean — a counter word for nouns) · NEG — negation

Word Order (SVO with pro-drop)

Italian follows a Subject-Verb-Object order, much like English, but the subject pronoun is usually dropped because the verb ending already shows the person. This is called 'pro-drop'. Subject pronouns (io, tu, lui, lei, noi, voi, loro) are only used for emphasis, contrast, or to avoid ambiguity. Word order is also more flexible than English: you can move elements for emphasis or topic, especially in speech. Adjectives normally follow the noun, and adverbs typically come after the verb. Direct and indirect object pronouns, however, are placed BEFORE the conjugated verb, not after it.

• Mangio una mela. — I-eat an apple
  I eat an apple.
• Io mangio, lui beve. — I eat, he drinks
  I eat, he drinks. (pronouns used for contrast)
• La vedo ogni giorno. — Her I-see every day
  I see her every day.

Articles (gendered, with special forms)

Italian articles agree with the noun in gender and number. Definite ('the'): masculine 'il' (il libro), 'lo' before z, s+consonant, gn, ps, x, y (lo zaino, lo studente), 'l'' before any vowel (l'amico); plural 'i' (i libri) and 'gli' for the lo/l' set (gli studenti, gli amici). Feminine 'la' (la casa), 'l'' before a vowel (l'amica); plural 'le' (le case, le amiche). Indefinite ('a/an'): masculine 'un' (un libro), 'uno' before z/s+consonant etc. (uno studente); feminine 'una' (una casa), 'un'' before a vowel (un'amica).

• Il ragazzo e la ragazza leggono. — The boy and the girl read
  The boy and the girl are reading.
• Lo studente ha uno zaino. — The student has a backpack
  The student has a backpack.
• Gli amici e le amiche arrivano. — The (m) friends and the (f) friends arrive
  The friends (male and female) are arriving.

Pronouns (subject, object, reflexive, indirect)

Subject: io, tu, lui/lei, noi, voi, loro (usually omitted). Direct object (whom/what): mi, ti, lo/la, ci, vi, li/le; they precede the conjugated verb. Indirect object (to whom): mi, ti, gli (to him), le (to her), ci, vi, gli/loro (to them). Reflexive: mi, ti, si, ci, vi, si, used when the subject and object are the same person. Stressed pronouns (after prepositions or for emphasis): me, te, lui/lei, noi, voi, loro. With infinitives and gerunds, object pronouns attach to the end (vederlo = 'to see him').

• Ti vedo domani. — You I-see tomorrow
  I'll see you tomorrow.
• Le do il libro. — To-her I-give the book
  I give her the book.
• Mi lavo le mani. — Myself I-wash the hands
  I wash my hands.

Noun Gender + Adjective Agreement

Every Italian noun is masculine or feminine. Typical endings: -o is usually masculine (libro), -a is usually feminine (casa), -e can be either (fiore m, chiave f) and must be memorized. Adjectives MUST agree with their noun in gender and number. Adjectives ending in -o have four forms: -o, -a, -i, -e (rosso/rossa/rossi/rosse). Adjectives ending in -e have only two forms: -e (singular) and -i (plural), used for both genders (grande/grandi). Most descriptive adjectives follow the noun (una casa grande). A few common ones (buono, bello, grande, piccolo) often precede it.

• Un libro rosso e una penna rossa. — A book red and a pen red
  A red book and a red pen.
• I ragazzi italiani sono simpatici. — The boys Italian are nice
  Italian boys are nice.
• Una città grande e tranquilla. — A city big and quiet
  A big, quiet city.

Verb Conjugation (-are, -ere, -ire; key irregulars)

Italian verbs belong to three groups by infinitive ending: -are (parlare 'to speak'), -ere (prendere 'to take'), -ire (dormire 'to sleep'; some, like capire, insert -isc-: capisco). Conjugation removes the ending and adds person endings for io, tu, lui/lei, noi, voi, loro. Four essential irregular verbs: essere ('to be': sono, sei, è, siamo, siete, sono), avere ('to have': ho, hai, ha, abbiamo, avete, hanno), andare ('to go': vado, vai, va, andiamo, andate, vanno), fare ('to do/make': faccio, fai, fa, facciamo, fate, fanno). These four are used constantly and in many idioms.

• Parlo italiano e studio inglese. — I-speak Italian and I-study English
  I speak Italian and study English.
• Sono stanco e ho fame. — I-am tired and I-have hunger
  I'm tired and I'm hungry.
• Vado a casa, lui fa la cena. — I-go to home, he makes the dinner
  I'm going home; he's making dinner.

Present Tense (presente indicativo)

The present tense covers three English meanings: simple present ('I eat'), present continuous ('I am eating'), and near future ('I'm eating later'). Endings for regular verbs: -are: -o, -i, -a, -iamo, -ate, -ano (parlo, parli, parla, parliamo, parlate, parlano). -ere: -o, -i, -e, -iamo, -ete, -ono (prendo, prendi, prende, prendiamo, prendete, prendono). -ire: -o, -i, -e, -iamo, -ite, -ono (dormo, dormi, dorme, dormiamo, dormite, dormono). For -isc- verbs: capisco, capisci, capisce, capiamo, capite, capiscono. Time expressions like 'adesso' (now) or 'spesso' (often) signal which English meaning fits.

• Parlo con Maria adesso. — I-speak with Maria now
  I'm speaking with Maria now.
• Mangiamo la pizza ogni venerdì. — We-eat the pizza every Friday
  We eat pizza every Friday.
• Domani parto per Roma. — Tomorrow I-leave for Rome
  Tomorrow I'm leaving for Rome.

Present Indicative Paradigms (regular -are / -ere / -ire / -isc-)

Italian verbs fall into three regular conjugations based on the infinitive ending. Drop the ending and add the personal endings below. Note that the present indicative covers the English simple present (I speak), the present progressive (I am speaking), and even a near-future use (I'm speaking tomorrow).

parlare (to speak), -are:

vedere (to see), -ere:

dormire (to sleep), -ire (type 1, no infix):

finire (to finish), -ire (type 2, with -isc- infix):

The -isc- group is large and includes capire (to understand), preferire (to prefer), pulire (to clean), spedire (to send), costruire (to build), unire (to unite). The infix appears in all singular forms and in the third person plural, never in noi or voi. There is no easy rule for predicting which -ire verbs take -isc-, so memorize them as you meet them. Stress patterns: in the third person plural (parlano, vedono, dormono, finiscono) the stress falls back on the stem syllable, not on the ending, which is a frequent pitfall for learners.

• Parlo italiano con i miei amici. — I-speak Italian with my friends
  I speak Italian with my friends.
• Vediamo un film ogni venerdì. — We-see a film every Friday
  We watch a film every Friday.
• I bambini dormono già. — The children sleep already
  The children are already asleep.
• Non capisco quello che dici. — Not I-understand what you-say
  I don't understand what you're saying.
• Voi a che ora finite? — You (pl) finish at what hour?
  What time do you (all) finish?
• Lei vive a Milano, lui lavora a Torino. — She lives in Milan, he works in Turin
  She lives in Milan, he works in Turin.

Past: Passato Prossimo vs Imperfetto

Italian has two main everyday past tenses. Passato prossimo (compound past) describes completed, specific actions: it uses 'avere' or 'essere' in the present + a past participle (-are -> -ato, -ere -> -uto, -ire -> -ito). Most verbs take 'avere'. Verbs of motion, change of state, and all reflexive verbs take 'essere'; with 'essere', the participle agrees in gender and number with the subject (è andata, sono andati). Imperfetto describes ongoing, habitual, or descriptive past situations ('used to', 'was -ing'). Endings: -are -> -avo, -avi, -ava, -avamo, -avate, -avano (similarly for -ere -> -evo, -ire -> -ivo).

• Ho mangiato una pizza. — I-have eaten a pizza
  I ate / I have eaten a pizza.
• Maria è andata a Roma. — Maria is gone (f) to Rome
  Maria went to Rome.
• Da bambino giocavo in giardino. — As child I-played in garden
  As a child I used to play in the garden.

Future (futuro semplice)

The futuro semplice expresses future actions and predictions. It is also frequently used for probability or guessing in the present ('Sarà a casa' = 'He's probably at home'). Form: take the infinitive, drop the final -e, and add endings -ò, -ai, -à, -emo, -ete, -anno. For -are verbs, the 'a' of the infinitive changes to 'e' (parlare -> parler-): parlerò, parlerai, parlerà, parleremo, parlerete, parleranno. Key irregulars use shortened stems: essere -> sar-, avere -> avr-, andare -> andr-, fare -> far-, dovere -> dovr-, potere -> potr-. In casual speech, the present tense often replaces the future for near events.

• Domani parlerò con il professore. — Tomorrow I-will-speak with the professor
  Tomorrow I'll speak with the professor.
• L'anno prossimo andremo in Italia. — The-year next we-will-go in Italy
  Next year we'll go to Italy.
• Sarà stanco, dorme già. — He-will-be tired, he-sleeps already
  He must be tired — he's already asleep.

Negation (non before verb; non...mai, non...niente)

To negate a verb, simply place 'non' directly before it (and before any object pronouns). Italian uses double negation freely: when a negative word like 'mai' (never), 'niente/nulla' (nothing), 'nessuno' (no one), 'più' (no longer), 'ancora' (not yet) appears AFTER the verb, you still need 'non' before it. This is grammatically required, not a mistake. If the negative word comes BEFORE the verb (e.g., 'Nessuno parla'), then 'non' is omitted. Common patterns: non...mai, non...niente, non...nessuno, non...più, non...ancora.

• Non parlo francese. — Not I-speak French
  I don't speak French.
• Non mangio mai la carne. — Not I-eat never the meat
  I never eat meat.
• Non c'è niente nel frigo. — Not there-is nothing in-the fridge
  There's nothing in the fridge.

Questions (intonation; wh-words)

Yes/no questions usually have the same word order as statements; you simply raise your voice at the end. Optionally, the subject can move to the end for emphasis ('Mangia la pasta Marco?'). Wh-questions begin with a question word followed by the verb: chi (who), che / che cosa / cosa (what), dove (where), quando (when), perché (why/because), come (how), quanto/quanta/quanti/quante (how much/many), quale/quali (which). After a preposition, the question word stays with the preposition: 'Con chi parli?' ('With whom are you talking?'). Note that 'perché' answers itself: 'Perché studio.' ('Because I study.').

• Parli italiano? — You-speak Italian?
  Do you speak Italian?
• Dove abiti? — Where you-live?
  Where do you live?
• Con chi vai al cinema? — With whom you-go to-the cinema?
  Who are you going to the cinema with?

Plural of Nouns (gendered patterns)

Most nouns form the plural by changing the final vowel, not by adding -s. Masculine: -o -> -i (libro -> libri), -e -> -i (fiore -> fiori). Feminine: -a -> -e (casa -> case), -e -> -i (chiave -> chiavi). Nouns ending in an accented vowel (città, caffè) or in a consonant (bar, film) don't change: la città / le città, il bar / i bar. A few common irregulars: l'uomo -> gli uomini, la mano -> le mani (feminine despite -o), l'uovo -> le uova (changes gender in plural). Nouns ending in -co/-go and -ca/-ga usually keep the hard sound: amico -> amici (soft), but parco -> parchi (hard).

• Un libro / due libri. — A book / two books
  One book / two books.
• La casa è grande, le case sono grandi. — The house is big, the houses are big
  The house is big; the houses are big.
• L'uomo lavora, gli uomini lavorano. — The-man works, the men work
  The man works; the men work.

Reflexive Verbs (chiamarsi, alzarsi)

Reflexive verbs are verbs whose subject acts on itself. Their infinitive ends in -si (chiamarsi 'to call oneself / to be called', alzarsi 'to get up', lavarsi 'to wash oneself', svegliarsi 'to wake up'). They are conjugated like normal verbs but ALWAYS take a reflexive pronoun matching the subject: mi, ti, si, ci, vi, si. The pronoun goes before the conjugated verb. In compound tenses (passato prossimo), reflexive verbs ALWAYS use 'essere', and the past participle agrees with the subject. Many everyday actions involving the body or routine are reflexive in Italian even when English doesn't use 'myself'.

• Mi chiamo Marco. — Myself I-call Marco
  My name is Marco.
• A che ora ti alzi? — At what hour yourself you-get-up?
  What time do you get up?
• Si è lavata le mani. — Herself she-is washed (f) the hands
  She washed her hands.

The 'Mi piace' Construction (inverted)

Italian doesn't say 'I like X' the way English does. Instead, 'piacere' literally means 'to be pleasing TO someone', so the structure inverts: the thing liked becomes the subject, and the person who likes it becomes an indirect object. Use 'piace' (singular) if the thing liked is singular or an infinitive, and 'piacciono' (plural) if the thing liked is plural. The indirect object pronouns are mi, ti, gli (to him), le (to her), ci, vi, gli (to them). For emphasis or with names, use 'a' + person: 'A Marco piace la pizza.' The same pattern applies to many similar verbs: mancare (to miss), servire (to need), bastare (to be enough).

• Mi piace la pizza. — To-me is-pleasing the pizza
  I like pizza.
• Ti piacciono i gatti? — To-you are-pleasing the cats?
  Do you like cats?
• A Maria piace viaggiare. — To Maria is-pleasing to-travel
  Maria likes to travel.

VOLERE + infinitivo (I want to ...)

To say 'I want to do X', conjugate 'volere' and follow it directly with the infinitive of the action verb. No preposition is needed between them. 'Volere' is irregular and one of the four most common modal verbs in Italian (along with 'potere', 'dovere', 'sapere').

volere (to want):

'Volere' can also take a direct noun object: 'Voglio un caffè' (I want a coffee). To negate, place 'non' before the conjugated form: 'Non voglio andare'. To make a question, just raise intonation: 'Vuoi un caffè?'. Note the polite alternative 'vorrei' (I would like), covered below, which is far more common than 'voglio' when ordering at a café or asking for something, because the bare 'voglio' can sound blunt. Object pronouns can either precede 'volere' or attach to the infinitive: 'Lo voglio vedere' = 'Voglio vederlo' (I want to see it).

• Voglio mangiare una pizza. — I-want to-eat a pizza
  I want to eat a pizza.
• Cosa vuoi fare stasera? — What you-want to-do tonight?
  What do you want to do tonight?
• Non vogliamo andare al cinema. — Not we-want to-go to-the cinema
  We don't want to go to the cinema.
• Vuole imparare lo spagnolo. — She-wants to-learn the Spanish
  She wants to learn Spanish.
• Volete partire già? — You (pl) want to-leave already?
  Do you (all) want to leave already?
• Vogliono comprare una casa in Italia. — They-want to-buy a house in Italy
  They want to buy a house in Italy.

STARE PER + infinitivo (going to / about to)

The construction 'stare per + infinitivo' expresses imminent future: an action that is on the verge of happening within seconds or minutes. It's the closest Italian equivalent to English 'to be about to' or sometimes 'going to' when the event is very near. For a more general planned future ('I'm going to buy a house next year'), Italians normally use the simple future tense (futuro semplice) or just the present.

stare (present indicative):

The imperfect of 'stare' (stavo, stavi, stava, stavamo, stavate, stavano) is used to mean 'was about to': 'Stavo per chiamarti' (I was just about to call you). Compare with 'stare + gerundio' (progressive, ongoing right now) and with the simple future (futuro semplice) for less immediate planning. A common mistake is to translate English 'I'm going to study tomorrow' as 'sto per studiare domani'; that sounds wrong because 'stare per' implies seconds, not 'tomorrow'. For tomorrow, say 'Studierò domani' or simply 'Domani studio'.

• Sto per partire. — I-am for to-leave
  I'm about to leave.
• Il treno sta per arrivare. — The train is for to-arrive
  The train is about to arrive.
• Stiamo per mangiare, vieni? — We-are for to-eat, you-come?
  We're about to eat, are you coming?
• Stava per piangere. — She-was for to-cry
  She was about to cry.
• Attento, stai per cadere! — Attention, you-are for to-fall!
  Watch out, you're about to fall!
• Il film sta per finire. — The film is for to-finish
  The film is about to end.

AVERE / ESSERE + participio passato (passato prossimo)

The passato prossimo is the everyday past tense for completed actions. It is built from two pieces: the present indicative of an auxiliary (avere or essere) plus the past participle of the main verb. Regular participles end in -ato (-are verbs: parlato), -uto (-ere verbs: venduto), -ito (-ire verbs: dormito). Many common -ere verbs have irregular participles: fare->fatto, vedere->visto, leggere->letto, scrivere->scritto, prendere->preso, mettere->messo, dire->detto, aprire->aperto, chiudere->chiuso, venire->venuto.

With AVERE (most transitive verbs):

With ESSERE (motion, change of state, reflexives):

Verbs that take 'essere' include andare, venire, arrivare, partire, entrare, uscire, salire, scendere, tornare, restare, stare, essere, nascere, morire, diventare, and all reflexives (mi sono lavato, ci siamo svegliati). With 'avere' the participle stays invariable, unless a direct object pronoun precedes (lo, la, li, le): 'L'ho vista' (I saw her), 'Le ho comprate' (I bought them, feminine). A common error is using 'avere' with motion verbs by analogy with English 'I have gone'; in Italian it must be 'sono andato/a'.

• Ho mangiato una pizza ieri sera. — I-have eaten a pizza yesterday-night
  I ate a pizza last night.
• Abbiamo visto un bel film. — We-have seen a beautiful film
  We saw a beautiful film.
• Maria è andata al mercato. — Maria is gone (f) to-the market
  Maria went to the market.
• I bambini sono arrivati tardi. — The children are arrived (m.pl) late
  The children arrived late.
• Mi sono lavata le mani. — Myself I-am washed (f) the hands
  I washed my hands. (female speaker)
• Non hai risposto al messaggio. — Not you-have answered to-the message
  You didn't answer the message.

VORREI / MI PIACEREBBE + infinitivo (would like)

Italian has two polite ways to say 'I would like'. 'Vorrei' is the conditional of 'volere' and is the standard polite request form, used constantly when ordering food, shopping, asking favors. 'Mi piacerebbe' uses the conditional of 'piacere' in the inverted-subject construction and expresses a softer wish or hypothetical desire, closer to 'it would be nice to' or 'I'd love to'.

volere conditional (would like):

piacere conditional (would be pleasing) + indirect-object pronouns:

'Vorrei' takes a direct object or an infinitive: 'Vorrei un tè', 'Vorrei dormire'. 'Mi piacerebbe' follows the piacere inversion: if the thing wanted is singular or an infinitive, use 'piacerebbe' (singular); if plural, use 'piacerebbero'. In a café, 'Vorrei un cappuccino' is far more natural than 'Voglio un cappuccino', which sounds curt or childish. The two can be combined for extra warmth: 'Mi piacerebbe tanto, ma non posso' (I'd really love to, but I can't).

• Vorrei un caffè, per favore. — I-would-want a coffee, please
  I'd like a coffee, please.
• Vorrei prenotare un tavolo per due. — I-would-want to-reserve a table for two
  I'd like to book a table for two.
• Mi piacerebbe visitare Firenze. — To-me would-be-pleasing to-visit Florence
  I'd like to visit Florence.
• Ti piacerebbe venire con noi? — To-you would-be-pleasing to-come with us?
  Would you like to come with us?
• Vorremmo parlare con il responsabile. — We-would-want to-speak with the manager
  We'd like to speak with the manager.
• Mi piacerebbero dei fiori. — To-me would-be-pleasing some flowers
  I'd like some flowers.

STARE + gerundio (progressive: I am ...-ing)

Italian has a dedicated progressive construction: 'stare' + gerundio. It expresses an action in progress at the exact moment of speaking (or, in the imperfect, at a past moment). Unlike English, Italian does NOT use this form for habitual or planned future actions; for those, use the simple present.

Forming the gerundio:

A few irregular gerunds: fare -> facendo, dire -> dicendo, bere -> bevendo.

stare (present indicative) + gerundio:

For 'I was -ing' (past progressive), use the imperfect of 'stare': stavo, stavi, stava, stavamo, stavate, stavano + gerundio. Object pronouns can precede 'stare' or attach to the gerundio: 'Lo sto leggendo' = 'Sto leggendolo' (I'm reading it). The simple present is also routinely used for ongoing action: 'Mangio adesso' is perfectly natural alongside 'Sto mangiando adesso'. The progressive form just stresses the in-progress nature more strongly.

• Sto mangiando adesso. — I-am eating now
  I'm eating right now.
• Che cosa stai facendo? — What you-are doing?
  What are you doing?
• I bambini stanno giocando in giardino. — The children are playing in the garden
  The children are playing in the garden.
• Stavo leggendo quando hai chiamato. — I-was reading when you-have called
  I was reading when you called.
• Stiamo studiando per l'esame. — We-are studying for the exam
  We're studying for the exam.
• Sta dicendo la verità. — She-is saying the truth
  She's telling the truth.

POTERE + infinitivo (can / could / may)

'Potere' expresses ability, permission, and possibility, much like English 'can', 'could', 'may'. It is followed directly by the infinitive with no preposition. 'Potere' is irregular.

potere (present indicative):

potere conditional (could / might):

Use the conditional 'potrei / potresti / potrebbe' for polite suggestions or hypothetical possibility: 'Potresti aiutarmi?' (Could you help me?), 'Potrebbe piovere' (It might rain). Distinguish 'potere' (be able to / be allowed to) from 'sapere' (know how to a learned skill): 'So nuotare' (I know how to swim, learned skill); 'Non posso nuotare oggi' (I can't swim today, circumstance). For knowledge of facts use 'sapere' alone: 'So che vieni' (I know you're coming). Object pronouns can precede 'potere' or attach to the infinitive: 'Posso aiutarti' = 'Ti posso aiutare'.

• Non posso venire stasera. — Not I-can come tonight
  I can't come tonight.
• Puoi aprire la finestra? — You-can open the window?
  Can you open the window?
• Qui non si può fumare. — Here you-can to-not smoke
  You can't smoke here.
• Possiamo aiutarti. — We-can to-help you
  We can help you.
• Potrei passare a prenderti alle sette? — I-could to-pass to-take you at the seven?
  Could I come pick you up at seven?
• Possono arrivare da un momento all'altro. — They-can to-arrive at any moment
  They could arrive at any moment.