Japanese Essential grammar

Writing systems and pronunciation

Japanese is written with three scripts mixed together.

Hiragana (ひらがな): 46 base characters, each one a syllable. Used for grammar words, verb endings, and any native word without a kanji. Learn this first.

Katakana (カタカナ): same 46 syllables as hiragana but a different shape. Used for foreign loanwords (コーヒー = coffee), names, emphasis, and onomatopoeia.

Kanji (漢字): ideographic characters borrowed from Chinese. Each kanji has a meaning and (usually) several readings. You see them mainly in nouns, verb stems, and adjective stems.

Furigana: when a text shows tiny hiragana above kanji, that's furigana: the pronunciation reminder for learners.

The five vowels are pronounced consistently: · a like father · i like ski · u like food (lips not rounded) · e like bed · o like go

All syllables end in one of these vowels (or in n). Stress is mostly flat: Japanese uses pitch, not stress, so words are spoken with relatively even rhythm.

• おはようございます — o-ha-yō-go-zai-mas (hiragana)
  Good morning.
• コーヒー — kō-hī (katakana: loanword)
  Coffee.
• 日本語 — ni-hon-go (kanji = Japan-language)
  Japanese (language).

Abbreviations used in this guide

Each example below has three parts: the original text, a literal gloss describing how every word works, and a natural translation. The glosses use a few shorthand labels so they stay short. Don't worry about memorising them: this is a reference you can come back to.

Person and number · 1sg / 2sg / 3sg: first / second / third person singular (I, you, he/she/it) · 1pl / 2pl / 3pl: first / second / third person plural (we, you-all, they)

Gender and case · m / f / n: masculine / feminine / neuter · sg / pl: singular / plural · m.sg: combined: masculine singular (and similarly f.pl, n.sg, etc.) · NOM / ACC / GEN / DAT / INS / LOC: grammatical cases (nominative/accusative/genitive/dative/instrumental/locative): which role the word plays in the sentence

Tense and aspect · PRES: present · PRET: preterite (a finished past event) · IMPF: imperfect (an ongoing or habitual past situation) · FUT: future · PERF: perfect (an action completed with present relevance) · PROG: progressive (action in progress, e.g. am eating) · COND: conditional (would…)

Mood · IND: indicative (regular statement) · SUBJ: subjunctive (uncertainty, wishes, doubts) · IMP: imperative (commands) · INF: infinitive (dictionary form: to go, to eat)

Other · REFL: reflexive (action on oneself: myself, yourself) · PERS: personal a (Spanish only: marks a human direct object) · HON: honorific (extra-polite form, common in Japanese/Korean) · TOP / SUB / OBJ: topic / subject / object markers (Japanese, Korean) · CL: classifier (Chinese, Japanese, Korean: a counter word for nouns) · NEG: negation

Writing systems: hiragana, katakana, kanji

Japanese is written with three scripts used together in the same sentence. Hiragana is a phonetic syllabary of 46 basic characters used for native Japanese words and for grammatical elements such as particles, verb endings, and function words. Katakana is a second syllabary with the same 46-syllable inventory; it is reserved for foreign loanwords, onomatopoeia, scientific terms, and emphasis. Hiragana and katakana are the closest equivalent to an alphabet: they are purely phonetic, and every sound in one has a counterpart in the other. Kanji are Chinese-origin logographic characters used for content words: nouns, verb roots, and adjective stems. Each kanji typically has multiple readings, chosen by context.

• あ い う え お — hiragana
  a i u e o vowels
• ア イ ウ エ オ — katakana
  a i u e o vowels
• 山 (やま) — kanji + hiragana reading
  kanji 'mountain' with hiragana reading

Kana tables: hiragana and katakana with romaji

Hiragana and katakana share the same sound inventory: 46 base syllables, plus voiced and semi-voiced variants (dakuten 〜゛ and handakuten 〜゜), plus small-y compounds (yōon) that fuse a consonant with /ya/, /yu/, /yo/. Learn the chart row by row, reading down each column (a, i, u, e, o) so the vowel pattern becomes automatic. Once you can read these two scripts, you can sound out any Japanese word; kanji is the next layer on top.

When to use which script

· Hiragana (ひらがな) writes native Japanese words, all grammatical particles (は, を, に, が, で, と …), verb and adjective endings, and any word whose kanji you haven't learned yet. It is the default script for children's books, furigana, and anything informal. · Katakana (カタカナ) writes loanwords from non-Chinese languages (コーヒー kōhī 'coffee', コンピューター konpyūtā 'computer'), foreign names (マリア Maria), onomatopoeia (ワンワン wanwan 'woof'), scientific names of animals and plants, and emphasis (the equivalent of italics). · Kanji (漢字) writes the roots of content words: nouns, verb stems, adjective stems. A typical sentence mixes all three scripts.

The long-vowel mark ー is exclusive to katakana. It doubles the preceding vowel: コーヒー = ko + o + hi + i. In hiragana, long vowels are written out as separate kana instead (おかあさん okāsan 'mother', おとうさん otōsan 'father').

Hiragana: base 46

Hiragana: dakuten (voiced) and handakuten

Hiragana: small-y compounds (yōon)

Katakana: base 46

Katakana: dakuten and handakuten

Katakana: small-y compounds (yōon)

Katakana long-vowel mark ー: doubles the preceding vowel sound. メール mēru 'email', カード kādo 'card', スーパー sūpā 'supermarket', コーヒー kōhī 'coffee'.

Small つ / ッ (sokuon): a small つ (hiragana) or ッ (katakana) before a consonant doubles that consonant in pronunciation. がっこう gakkō 'school', きって kitte 'stamp', カップ kappu 'cup', サッカー sakkā 'soccer'. There is a tiny pause before the doubled consonant, almost like holding your breath.

Pronunciation reminders

· し is shi, not si. ち is chi. つ is tsu. ふ is fu (a soft, lip-rounded blow, not English f or h). · ら り る れ ろ are a soft tap, somewhere between English l and r (closer to Spanish or Italian r). · ん at the end of a syllable is a nasal sound that adapts to what follows: it sounds like n before t/d/n (おんな onna), like m before b/m/p (さんぽ sanpo, pronounced sampo), and like a soft nasal ng at the end of a word (にほん Nihon). · を is pronounced o; it survives only as the object-marking particle. · Long vowels matter for meaning: おばさん obasan 'aunt' vs おばあさん obāsan 'grandmother'; ゆき yuki 'snow' vs ゆうき yūki 'courage'.

• ありがとう — a-ri-ga-to-u (hiragana, long ō written as うう or just う)
  Thank you.
• コンビニ — ko-n-bi-ni (katakana, from English 'convenience [store]')
  Convenience store.
• がっこう — ga-(small tsu)-ko-u, read gakkō (small つ doubles the following k)
  School.
• きょう — ki + small ょ + u = kyō (small-y compound + long vowel)
  Today.
• ニューヨーク — ni + small ュ + ー / yō + ku = Nyū-yōku (katakana with long-vowel marks)
  New York.
• おばあさん vs おばさん — o-ba-a-san vs o-ba-san: long ā changes meaning
  Grandmother vs aunt.
• しゃしん — sha-shi-n (し + small ゃ = sha; ん nasal)
  Photograph.
• カフェ — ka-fe (katakana, ka + small e for non-native /fe/ sound)
  Café.

Word order

Japanese is an SOV language: the verb comes at the end of the clause. The basic pattern is Subject + Object + Verb, but because grammatical roles are marked by particles, the order of non-verb elements is flexible. Modifiers (adjectives, relative clauses, possessors) always precede what they modify. The subject is freely dropped when it is clear from context, and pronouns are similarly omitted. What matters is that the verb (or copula) closes the sentence, and that each noun phrase carries the correct particle to show its function. This means listening for the final verb is essential to understand who did what.

• 私はりんごを食べます。 — I-TOPIC apple-OBJ eat-POLITE
  I eat an apple.
• 田中さんは図書館で本を読みます。 — Tanaka-TOPIC library-LOC book-OBJ read
  Tanaka reads a book at the library.
• 食べます。 — eat-POLITE (subject dropped)
  (I/we) eat.

No articles, no plurals

Japanese has no articles (a/an/the) and no obligatory plural marking. A bare noun like 本 (hon) can mean 'book', 'a book', 'the book', 'books', or 'the books' depending on context. Number, when relevant, is expressed by numerals plus a counter (e.g., 本を三冊 'three books'), by quantifiers like たくさん 'many' or 少し 'a few', or by context alone. The suffix -たち (e.g., 学生たち 'students') exists but is restricted to humans and certain animates, and it is not a true plural: it suggests a group, not 'more than one'. Definiteness must be inferred from context.

• 猫がいます。 — cat-SUBJ exists
  There is a cat / There are cats.
• 本を三冊買いました。 — book-OBJ 3-counter bought
  I bought three books.
• 学生たちが来ました。 — student-PL-SUBJ came
  The students came.

Particles

Particles are short postpositions that mark the role of the preceding word. The core set: は (wa) marks the topic ('as for X'); が (ga) marks the grammatical subject, often introducing new information; を (o) marks the direct object; に (ni) marks a destination, location of existence, time point, or indirect object; で (de) marks the means/instrument or the place where an action happens; の (no) links nouns as possessive or modifier; へ (e) marks direction (often interchangeable with に); と (to) means 'and' between nouns or 'with' a companion; から (kara) 'from' and まで (made) 'to/until' mark range in space or time.

• 私は学校に行きます。 — I-TOPIC school-to go
  I go to school.
• ペンで手紙を書きます。 — pen-INSTR letter-OBJ write
  I write a letter with a pen.
• 九時から五時まで働きます。 — 9-from 5-until work
  I work from nine to five.

Pronouns

Japanese has pronouns, but they are used sparingly. 私 (watashi) 'I', あなた (anata) 'you', 彼 (kare) 'he', 彼女 (kanojo) 'she', 私たち (watashitachi) 'we'. In natural speech, subject and object pronouns are usually dropped when context makes the referent clear. Using あなた to address someone can sound blunt or intimate; the speaker normally uses the listener's name plus さん instead. First-person choices also vary by gender and formality (僕 boku, 俺 ore for male speakers in casual speech). Treat pronouns as marked, not default: if you would say 'I' or 'you' in English, in Japanese you most often say nothing.

• (私は)学生です。 — (I-TOPIC) student-COP
  I am a student.
• 田中さんは先生ですか。 — Tanaka-TOPIC teacher-COP-Q
  Are you (Tanaka) a teacher?
• 彼女は来ません。 — she-TOPIC come-NEG
  She is not coming.

Verb groups

Japanese verbs fall into three classes. Group 1 (五段, godan / 'u-verbs') end in a consonant + u: 書く kaku 'write', 飲む nomu 'drink', 話す hanasu 'speak'. Their stem changes across the five vowel rows of the kana chart. Group 2 (一段, ichidan / 'ru-verbs') end in -iru or -eru and conjugate by simply dropping る: 食べる taberu 'eat', 見る miru 'see'. Group 3 is irregular and contains only two members: する suru 'do' and 来る kuru 'come'. Identifying the group is the prerequisite for conjugation, because each group has its own rule for forming the polite stem, the negative, the te-form, and the past.

• 書く → 書きます — Group 1: kaku → kakimasu
  write → write (polite)
• 食べる → 食べます — Group 2: taberu → tabemasu
  eat → eat (polite)
• する → します / 来る → 来ます — Group 3 irregulars
  do → do / come → come

Verb conjugation: dictionary, polite, negative, past

From the dictionary form, build the polite present (-ます) as follows. Group 1: change final -u to -i and add -masu (nomu → nomimasu). Group 2: drop -ru and add -masu (taberu → tabemasu). Irregulars: suru → shimasu, kuru → kimasu. The polite negative replaces -masu with -masen (nomimasen 'do not drink'). The polite past replaces -masu with -mashita (nomimashita 'drank'). The polite past negative is -masen deshita (nomimasen deshita 'did not drink'). The plain (dictionary) forms have their own negatives (-nai) and past (-ta), used in casual speech and inside complex sentences.

• 飲みます / 飲みません — polite affirmative / polite negative
  drink / do not drink
• 食べました / 食べませんでした — polite past / polite past negative
  ate / did not eat
• 行く → 行かない — Group 1 plain negative
  go → do not go

Present / non-past tense

Japanese does not distinguish present from future morphologically; one form, the non-past, covers both. 食べます (tabemasu) means 'I eat', 'I will eat', or 'I am going to eat', depending on context and time adverbs. To describe an action currently in progress, use the te-form plus いる: 食べています (tabete imasu) 'I am eating'. The non-past is also used for habitual actions (毎日 'every day…'), general truths, and scheduled future events. With stative verbs like ある 'exist (inanimate)' and いる 'exist (animate)', the non-past simply states what is the case now.

• 明日東京に行きます。 — tomorrow Tokyo-to go-NONPAST
  I will go to Tokyo tomorrow.
• 毎朝コーヒーを飲みます。 — every-morning coffee-OBJ drink
  I drink coffee every morning.
• 今、本を読んでいます。 — now book-OBJ read-TE exist
  I am reading a book now.

Past tense

The polite past is formed by replacing -ます with -ました: 行きます → 行きました 'went', 食べます → 食べました 'ate'. The polite past negative is -ませんでした: 行きませんでした 'did not go'. The plain past, used in casual speech and in subordinate clauses, is the -た form, which is built from the te-form by swapping the final て/で for た/だ: 食べて → 食べた, 飲んで → 飲んだ. Past-tense forms in Japanese also serve as perfect/completed-aspect forms in many contexts, so 食べました can mean 'ate', 'have eaten', or 'had eaten' depending on context.

• 昨日映画を見ました。 — yesterday movie-OBJ saw
  I watched a movie yesterday.
• 宿題をしませんでした。 — homework-OBJ do-PAST-NEG
  I did not do the homework.
• もう食べた。 — already ate-PLAIN
  I already ate.

Te-form and its uses

The te-form is the most versatile non-finite form. It is built by group: Group 2 verbs simply replace る with て (taberu → tabete). Group 1 verbs follow euphonic patterns based on their final syllable: -く → いて (kaku → kaite), -ぐ → いで, -む/ぬ/ぶ → んで, -る/つ/う → って, -す → して. Irregulars: する → して, 来る → きて. Uses include: connecting clauses ('and then'), giving polite requests with -て ください, expressing progressive aspect with -ている, asking and granting permission with -てもいい, and forbidding with -てはいけない. Without the te-form you cannot build most compound constructions.

• 朝起きて、コーヒーを飲みます。 — morning wake-TE coffee-OBJ drink
  I wake up in the morning and drink coffee.
• ちょっと待ってください。 — a-little wait-TE please
  Please wait a moment.
• ここに座ってもいいですか。 — here sit-TE-also good-Q
  May I sit here?

Verb conjugation paradigms (u-verb, ru-verb, irregulars)

Here are full paradigms for one representative verb from each of the three classes. Memorising these four verbs gives you a template for hundreds of others.

**Group 1 (u-verb): 飲む (のむ, nomu): 'drink'**

**Group 2 (ru-verb): 食べる (たべる, taberu): 'eat'**

**Group 3 irregular: する (suru): 'do'**

**Group 3 irregular: 来る (くる, kuru): 'come'**

Note the reading shift of 来 across forms (く / き / こ): the kanji stays, the hiragana reading changes. For u-verbs, the consonant before the final -u determines the te-form pattern: む/ぬ/ぶ → んで; く → いて (exception: 行く → 行って); ぐ → いで; す → して; つ/る/う → って.

• 毎晩、ワインを飲みます。 — every-night, wine-OBJ drink-POLITE (mainichi-ban, wain-o nomimasu)
  I drink wine every night.
• 肉は食べない。 — meat-TOPIC eat-NEG-PLAIN (niku wa tabenai)
  I don't eat meat.
• 昨日、宿題をしませんでした。 — yesterday, homework-OBJ do-PAST-NEG-POLITE (kinō, shukudai o shimasen deshita)
  I didn't do the homework yesterday.
• 友達が来ました。 — friend-SUBJ come-PAST-POLITE (tomodachi ga kimashita)
  A friend came.
• 飲んで、食べて、話しました。 — drink-TE, eat-TE, talked (nonde, tabete, hanashimashita)
  We drank, ate, and talked.

〜たい: Want to do (something)

To say 'I want to V', take the ます-stem (the verb stem you get by removing -ます from the polite form) and attach 〜たい. 飲みます → 飲み + たい → 飲みたい nomitai 'want to drink'. 食べます → 食べ + たい → 食べたい 'want to eat'. する → し + たい → したい. 来る → き + たい → 来たい kitai.

Grammatically, 〜たい behaves like an i-adjective: 飲みたい (want), 飲みたくない (don't want), 飲みたかった (wanted), 飲みたくなかった (didn't want). Add です for politeness: 飲みたいです.

The object of a 〜たい sentence can take either を or が: 水を飲みたい / 水が飲みたい. The が version emphasises what it is you want.

Important register note: 〜たい is only used for the speaker's own desire (or in a question, the listener's). To say what someone else wants, switch to 〜たがる: 弟はビールを飲みたがっています 'My brother wants to drink beer'. Stating 彼は飲みたい directly would sound presumptuous: you can't read another person's mind.

Compare with 〜ほしい: 〜たい takes a verb (want to do X), while 〜ほしい takes a noun (want the thing X): see the 〜ほしい section.

• 今、コーヒーが飲みたいです。 — now, coffee-SUBJ drink-want-COP (ima, kōhī ga nomitai desu)
  I want to drink a coffee right now.
• 今日は何もしたくない。 — today-TOPIC nothing do-want-NEG-PLAIN (kyō wa nani mo shitakunai)
  I don't want to do anything today.
• 子供のころ、宇宙飛行士になりたかった。 — child-of-time, astronaut-become-want-PAST (kodomo no koro, uchūhikōshi ni naritakatta)
  When I was a child, I wanted to be an astronaut.
• 週末、どこに行きたいですか。 — weekend, where-to go-want-COP-Q (shūmatsu, doko ni ikitai desu ka)
  Where do you want to go this weekend?
• 妹はディズニーランドに行きたがっています。 — little-sister-TOPIC Disneyland-to go-want(3rd)-PROG (imōto wa Dizunīrando ni ikitagatte imasu)
  My little sister wants to go to Disneyland.
• もう一度日本に行きたいなあ。 — one-more-time Japan-to go-want-emph (mō ichido Nihon ni ikitai nā)
  I really want to go to Japan one more time.

〜つもり / 〜ようと思う: Planned future ('going to', 'plan to')

Japanese non-past covers 'will'-style future, but to mark something as a personal plan or intention there are two standard constructions.

〜つもり (tsumori) attaches to the plain non-past form of a verb (or 〜ない for the negative): 'I plan / intend to V'. It expresses a firm decision the speaker has already made.

〜ようと思う (-yō to omou) attaches the volitional form (V-よう / V-おう, the 'let's…' form) to と思う 'I think'. It means 'I'm thinking of V-ing' or 'I think I'll V'. Slightly less committed than つもり.

〜予定 (yotei) です is a third option, more neutral, for scheduled events on a calendar: 来週、京都に行く予定です 'I'm scheduled to go to Kyoto next week'. つもり emphasises will / determination; ようと思う emphasises thinking about it; 予定 emphasises scheduling.

A common error: using 〜つもり for someone else's plan as if it were a fact (彼は来るつもりです 'he plans to come') is fine when reporting what he told you, but for your own gut prediction about him, use 〜だろう / 〜と思います instead.

• 夏休みに国へ帰るつもりです。 — summer-break-at country-to return plan-COP (natsuyasumi ni kuni e kaeru tsumori desu)
  I plan to return to my country during summer break.
• 今年はもうお酒を飲まないつもりです。 — this-year-TOP no-more alcohol-OBJ drink-NEG plan-COP (kotoshi wa mō osake o nomanai tsumori desu)
  I plan not to drink any more alcohol this year.
• 週末、映画を見ようと思います。 — weekend, movie-OBJ see-VOL QUOT think-POLITE (shūmatsu, eiga o miyō to omoimasu)
  I'm thinking of watching a movie this weekend.
• 明日から毎朝走ろうと思っています。 — tomorrow-from every-morning run-VOL QUOT think-PROG (ashita kara maiasa hashirō to omotte imasu)
  I've been thinking of going running every morning starting tomorrow.
• 六時の電車に乗る予定です。 — 6-o-clock-of train-on board schedule-COP (rokuji no densha ni noru yotei desu)
  I'm scheduled to take the 6 o'clock train.
• 本当は行くつもりだったんだけど、急に用事ができて… — actually-TOP go plan-COP-PAST-EXPL-but, sudden-LY business-SUBJ arose-TE… (hontō wa iku tsumori datta n da kedo, kyū ni yōji ga dekite…)
  Actually I had planned to go, but something suddenly came up…

〜たことがある: Perfect of experience ('have ever V-ed')

Japanese has no separate 'perfect tense', but to say 'I have once V-ed' / 'I have ever V-ed' as a piece of life experience, use the plain past (〜た) of the verb + ことがある (koto ga aru): literally 'the thing of having V-ed exists'.

The construction is restricted to non-trivial, episodic experiences: things you can plausibly imagine never having done. It's odd to say 学校に行ったことがあります for 'I've been to school' (everyone has) but natural for 京都に行ったことがあります 'I've been to Kyoto'.

For experiences in the recent past, Japanese uses different phrasings: もう食べました 'I already ate' (perfect of completion, see past tense section), not 食べたことがあります.

Negative answers commonly drop が in casual speech: そんなの聞いたことない 'Never heard of such a thing'.

A contrast with English: where English would say 'I've lived in Tokyo' for a current-or-past state, Japanese splits it. 東京に住んだことがあります = 'I have lived in Tokyo (at some point in the past)'. 東京に住んでいます = 'I am living in Tokyo (now/currently)'. Mixing them up is a frequent learner slip.

• 寿司を食べたことがありますか。 — sushi-OBJ ate thing-SUBJ exist-Q (sushi o tabeta koto ga arimasu ka)
  Have you ever eaten sushi?
• はい、何度もあります。 — yes, several-times-also exist (hai, nando mo arimasu)
  Yes, many times.
• 富士山に登ったことはまだありません。 — Mt.Fuji-LOC climbed thing-TOP yet exist-NEG (Fujisan ni nobotta koto wa mada arimasen)
  I have not yet climbed Mt. Fuji.
• 子供のころ、犬に噛まれたことがある。 — child-of-time, dog-by bitten thing-SUBJ exist-PLAIN (kodomo no koro, inu ni kamareta koto ga aru)
  When I was a kid, I was once bitten by a dog.
• そんな話、聞いたことない。 — such-a story, heard thing-NEG-CASUAL (sonna hanashi, kiita koto nai)
  I've never heard such a story.
• 京都に住んだことがあります。 — Kyoto-LOC lived thing-SUBJ exist (Kyōto ni sunda koto ga arimasu)
  I have lived in Kyoto (at some point).

〜ほしい / 〜たいです: Would like (politeness)

Two constructions overlap with English 'would like'. The choice depends on whether what you want is a thing or an action.

N が ほしい: 'I want N' (a thing). ほしい is an i-adjective. Object marker is が, not を.

V-stem + たいです: 'I would like to V' (an action). See the dedicated 〜たい section for the full paradigm.

In practice, Japanese rarely uses bare 〜たい / ほしい when making requests of others in service contexts: it sounds too direct. Polite requests use other phrases instead: 〜をお願いします ('Please [give me] X'), 〜をください ('Please give me X'), or 〜ていただけますか ('Could you possibly V?'). So in a restaurant you say コーヒーをお願いします, not コーヒーがほしいです.

Asking for someone else to do something: 〜てほしい: combine the te-form with ほしい to say 'I want [you/someone] to V'. The person is marked with に. 手伝ってほしい 'I want you to help me'; 弟に静かにしてほしい 'I want my brother to be quiet'.

A classic learner error is using 〜たい for a third party's desire: say 弟は…たがっています instead (see the 〜たい section).

• 新しいパソコンがほしいです。 — new computer-SUBJ want-COP (atarashii pasokon ga hoshii desu)
  I want a new computer.
• 誕生日に何がほしいですか。 — birthday-on what-SUBJ want-COP-Q (tanjōbi ni nani ga hoshii desu ka)
  What would you like for your birthday?
• もう何もほしくない。 — any-more nothing want-NEG-CASUAL (mō nani mo hoshikunai)
  I don't want anything any more.
• ちょっと手伝ってほしいんだけど… — a-little help-TE want-EXPL-but… (chotto tetsudatte hoshii n da kedo…)
  I'd like you to help me a bit, if you can…
• そんなことを言わないでほしい。 — such thing-OBJ say-NEG-TE want (sonna koto o iwanai de hoshii)
  I wish you wouldn't say that.
• コーヒーをお願いします。 — coffee-OBJ favour-do-POLITE (kōhī o onegai shimasu)
  A coffee, please. (preferred over 'コーヒーがほしいです' in shops)

〜ている: Progressive and resultant state

The te-form + いる (polite: います) is one of the most-used constructions in Japanese. It has two distinct meanings depending on the verb type.

1. Action in progress (with action verbs): 食べています 'is eating', 走っています 'is running', 勉強しています 'is studying'. English 'be V-ing'.

2. Resulting state (with change-of-state verbs): 結婚しています 'is married' (not 'is getting married'), 知っています 'I know' (the state of having come to know), 死んでいる '(it) is dead', 落ちている '(it) has fallen / is lying there'.

Conjugation follows いる as a Group 2 verb: いる / います (affirm.), いない / いません (neg.), いた / いました (past), いなかった / いませんでした (past neg.). In casual speech, the い is dropped: 食べてる, 待ってる, 知ってる.

For habitual or repeated actions, 〜ている also works: 毎週、テニスをしています 'I play tennis every week'. Don't confuse it with English present-perfect-continuous; for 'I have been V-ing for X time', Japanese uses 〜ている + duration: 三年前から日本語を勉強しています 'I've been studying Japanese for three years'.

A frequent error: saying 知りません to mean 'I don't know' is correct only for not-yet-acquired knowledge. To express ongoing not-knowing, native speakers say 知らない / 知りません: but to say 'I know', you must use 知っています (never plain 知ります, which is non-existent in that meaning).

• 今、宿題をしています。 — now, homework-OBJ do-PROG (ima, shukudai o shite imasu)
  I'm doing my homework right now.
• 彼は十年前から東京に住んでいます。 — he-TOP 10-years-ago-from Tokyo-LOC live-PROG (kare wa jūnen mae kara Tōkyō ni sunde imasu)
  He has been living in Tokyo for ten years.
• ドアが開いています。 — door-SUBJ open-PROG (doa ga aite imasu)
  The door is open. (resulting state)
• あの人を知っていますか。 — that person-OBJ know-PROG-Q (ano hito o shitte imasu ka)
  Do you know that person?
• いいえ、知りません。 — no, know-NEG (iie, shirimasen)
  No, I don't know (them).
• 今、何してる? — now, what do-PROG-CASUAL (ima, nani shiteru?)
  What are you doing right now?

できる / 〜ことができる: Can, be able to

Japanese has several ways to express 'can / be able to'. The two core patterns are できる and the verb-potential form.

1. N が できる: 'can do N' / 'N is possible'. できる is itself a verb (Group 2) meaning 'be able / arise / be ready'. The thing one can do is marked with が (the subject particle), not を.

2. V (plain) + ことができる: 'be able to V'. Slightly more formal than the potential form below. Used widely in writing, signs, and announcements.

この席に座ることができます: 'You may sit in this seat.' ここで写真を撮ることはできません: 'You cannot take photos here.'

3. Potential form of the verb (built-in conjugation, often the most idiomatic in speech):

The potential form behaves as a Group 2 verb: 飲める, 飲めない, 飲めた, 飲めなかった, 飲めて. In casual speech, Group 2 potentials are often shortened by dropping ら (so-called ra-nuki kotoba): 食べれる, 来れる, 見れる. This is widespread in conversation but still considered informal/non-standard in writing.

A particle shift goes with potentials: the object usually moves from を to が. 漢字を読む 'read kanji' → 漢字が読める 'can read kanji'. Both are heard, but が is the textbook choice.

• 日本語が少しできます。 — Japanese-SUBJ a-little can-do (nihongo ga sukoshi dekimasu)
  I can (speak) a little Japanese.
• 私は刺身が食べられません。 — I-TOP sashimi-SUBJ eat-POTENTIAL-NEG (watashi wa sashimi ga taberaremasen)
  I can't eat sashimi.
• ここでタバコを吸うことはできません。 — here-LOC tobacco-OBJ smoke thing-TOP can-NEG (koko de tabako o suu koto wa dekimasen)
  You cannot smoke here.
• やっと自転車に乗れるようになりました。 — finally bicycle-on ride-POTENTIAL way-LOC became (yatto jitensha ni noreru yō ni narimashita)
  I have finally become able to ride a bicycle.
• 明日、来られますか。 — tomorrow, come-POTENTIAL-Q (ashita, koraremasu ka)
  Will you be able to come tomorrow?
• この漢字、読めない。 — this kanji, read-POTENTIAL-NEG-CASUAL (kono kanji, yomenai)
  I can't read this kanji.

Te-form chaining: Linking actions ('and then')

Use the te-form to chain two or more clauses inside a single sentence. The tense and politeness of the final verb apply to the whole sentence; the earlier te-form verbs are tense-neutral.

朝起きて、シャワーを浴びて、朝ご飯を食べました。 'I woke up, took a shower, and ate breakfast.' (past, polite: set by the last verb)

Note how only 食べました carries the past polite marking; 起きて and 浴びて inherit it from context.

Functions of te-form chaining

To negate an earlier clause in a chain, use the 〜なくて form (for state-like reasons) or 〜ないで (for 'without doing X'): 朝ご飯を食べないで、出かけた 'I left without eating breakfast'. 時間がなくて、行けなかった 'I had no time, so I couldn't go'.

i-adjective te-form: -い → -くて. 高い → 高くて. na-adjective / noun te-form: + で. 静かで, 学生で. These plug into the same chain: この部屋は静かで、広いです 'This room is quiet and spacious.'

Long chains are common in narration but can sound run-on if overused: for clearer prose, break into separate sentences or use specific conjunctions (それから, そして, から, ので) instead.

• 六時に起きて、新聞を読んで、会社に行きます。 — 6-o-clock-at wake-TE, newspaper-OBJ read-TE, company-to go (rokuji ni okite, shinbun o yonde, kaisha ni ikimasu)
  I wake up at six, read the newspaper, and go to work.
• 風邪をひいて、学校を休みました。 — cold-OBJ caught-TE, school-OBJ rested (kaze o hiite, gakkō o yasumimashita)
  I caught a cold, so I stayed home from school.
• この店は安くて、おいしいです。 — this shop-TOP cheap-TE, tasty-COP (kono mise wa yasukute, oishii desu)
  This place is cheap and tasty.
• お金がなくて、買えなかった。 — money-SUBJ exist-NEG-TE, buy-POT-NEG-PAST (okane ga nakute, kaenakatta)
  I had no money, so I couldn't buy it.
• 傘を持たないで出かけました。 — umbrella-OBJ hold-NEG-without left (kasa o motanai de dekakemashita)
  I went out without taking an umbrella.
• 彼女は親切で、頭がいい人です。 — she-TOP kind-TE, head-SUBJ good person-COP (kanojo wa shinsetsu de, atama ga ii hito desu)
  She's a kind and smart person.

〜てください: Polite request ('please V')

The standard polite request is V-て + ください (kudasai) 'please V'. It's used for instructions, invitations, and asking favours in a neutral-polite register: appropriate in classrooms, shops, signs, and most everyday interactions with people you don't know well.

ちょっと待ってください。 'Please wait a moment.' ここに名前を書いてください。 'Please write your name here.'

Negative request (please don't V): use V-ないで ください: 写真を撮らないでください 'Please don't take photos'; 心配しないでください 'Please don't worry'.

For softer, more polite alternatives in service or business contexts:

- 〜ていただけますか / いただけませんか: 'Could you possibly V?' (very polite, humble): もう一度言っていただけますか 'Could you say that once more?' - 〜てくれますか / 〜てもらえますか: informal among friends: ちょっと手伝ってくれる? 'Can you help me a bit?' - お + ます-stem + ください: formal honorific request, common in announcements and instructions: ご注意ください 'Please be careful', こちらにお名前をお書きください 'Please write your name here'.

Dropping ください leaves bare V-て, which functions as a soft, casual request between intimates: ちょっと待って 'Wait a sec'. Bare imperative forms (飲め, 食べろ) also exist but are blunt commands: only between close peers, in sports, or when scolding; using them with strangers is rude.

• もう一度言ってください。 — one-more-time say-TE please (mō ichido itte kudasai)
  Please say that one more time.
• ここでタバコを吸わないでください。 — here-LOC tobacco-OBJ smoke-NEG-TE please (koko de tabako o suwanai de kudasai)
  Please don't smoke here.
• 少々お待ちください。 — a-little wait-HONORIFIC please (shōshō omachi kudasai)
  Please wait a moment. (formal)
• ちょっと手伝ってくれる? — a-little help-TE give-CASUAL-Q (chotto tetsudatte kureru?)
  Can you help me a bit? (to a friend)
• もう一度説明していただけますか。 — one-more-time explain-TE receive-POT-Q (mō ichido setsumei shite itadakemasu ka)
  Could you possibly explain that once more?
• 気をつけてね。 — spirit-OBJ attach-TE-NE (ki o tsukete ne)
  Take care, OK? (casual)

Adjectives: i-adjectives and na-adjectives

Japanese has two adjective classes. I-adjectives end in -い in their dictionary form (高い takai 'expensive', 寒い samui 'cold') and conjugate themselves: negative 高くない, past 高かった, past negative 高くなかった, te-form 高くて. They do not need です to be grammatical, but です is added for politeness. Na-adjectives behave more like nouns (静か shizuka 'quiet', 元気 genki 'healthy'); they attach to a following noun with な (静かな部屋 'a quiet room') and take their tense and polarity from the copula です: 静かです, 静かじゃない, 静かでした, 静かじゃなかった. Mis-applying i-rules to na-adjectives (and vice versa) is a common error.

• この本は高いです。 — i-adj affirmative
  This book is expensive.
• 昨日は寒かったです。 — i-adj past
  It was cold yesterday.
• 静かな部屋が好きです。 — na-adj + na + noun
  I like quiet rooms.

The copula です

です (desu) is the polite copula, equating two noun phrases (A は B です 'A is B') or following a na-adjective. Its forms: non-past affirmative です, non-past negative じゃありません / じゃないです (more casual: じゃない), past でした, past negative じゃありませんでした / じゃなかったです. The plain copula is だ (da), with plain negative じゃない and plain past だった. です can softly close a sentence after an i-adjective (高いです), although grammatically i-adjectives already inflect for tense and polarity, so the です there carries no tense: never say *高いでした.

• 彼は医者です。 — he-TOPIC doctor-COP
  He is a doctor.
• 学生じゃありません。 — student-COP-NEG
  I am not a student.
• 昨日は休みでした。 — yesterday-TOPIC day-off-COP-PAST
  Yesterday was a day off.

Sentence-final particles: か, ね, よ

Sentence-final particles add nuance without changing propositional content. か (ka) turns a statement into a question; in polite speech it replaces the English question mark and rising intonation: 学生ですか 'Are you a student?'. ね (ne) seeks agreement or confirmation, similar to English 'right?' or '…isn't it?'; it assumes the listener shares the speaker's view: いい天気ですね 'Nice weather, isn't it?'. よ (yo) asserts information the speaker believes is new to the listener, or emphasizes a point: その店は今日休みですよ 'That shop is closed today (you should know)'. Misusing よ can sound pushy; misusing ね can sound presumptuous.

• コーヒーが好きですか。 — coffee-SUBJ like-COP-Q
  Do you like coffee?
• 今日は暑いですね。 — today-TOPIC hot-COP-NE
  It is hot today, isn't it?
• 電車はもう出ましたよ。 — train-TOPIC already left-YO
  The train has already left, you know.

Counters

To count things in Japanese you must use a counter suffix matched to the type of object. The structure is numeral + counter, placed after the noun and its particle (本を三冊 'three books'). Common counters: 人 (nin) for people: note irregular 一人 hitori, 二人 futari; 個 (ko) for small round or generic objects; 杯 (hai/bai/pai) for cupfuls/glassfuls of liquid, with sound changes (一杯 ippai, 三杯 sanbai); 本 (hon/bon/pon) for long, cylindrical things like bottles, pens, trees (一本 ippon, 三本 sanbon). A native generic counter set (一つ, 二つ, 三つ …) can substitute when you are unsure which specific counter applies.

• 学生が三人います。 — student-SUBJ 3-CL-people exists
  There are three students.
• 水を一杯ください。 — water-OBJ 1-CL-cup please
  A glass of water, please.
• ビールを二本飲みました。 — beer-OBJ 2-CL-bottle drank
  I drank two bottles of beer.

Politeness and honorific levels

Japanese encodes social relations grammatically. The two most useful registers are plain (casual, dictionary forms: used among friends, family, and in writing) and polite (-ます / です forms: the default for strangers, colleagues, and public situations). Beyond polite, there is honorific keigo, with two further sub-systems: 尊敬語 sonkeigo, which elevates the listener or subject (お読みになる, いらっしゃる), and 謙譲語 kenjōgo, which humbles the speaker (お読みする, 参る). Learners should master polite -ます first, then add plain forms for everyday relationships. Use full keigo in service, business, and formal contexts; using it with close friends sounds cold or sarcastic.

• 食べる / 食べます / 召し上がる — plain / polite / honorific (sonkeigo)
  eat (three levels)
• 行く / 行きます / 参ります — plain / polite / humble (kenjōgo)
  go (three levels)
• 先生はもう帰られました。 — teacher-TOPIC already returned-HON
  The teacher has already gone home.